### Random points on a unit sphere in OSL, code and benchmarks

In preparation to adapting the wood knot shader to have randomly oriented cylindrical knots rather than spherical knots I needed a function that generates vectors that are uniformly distributed over the surface of a unit sphere. This is not as simple as creating a vector with three random components but several methods exist that will produce vectors with a correct distribution.

A straight forward method (implemented in the function random_sphere() shown below) consists of generating correctly distributed spherical coordinates and the converting them to cartesian coordinates. This works fine but because trigonometric functions (like acos() and sincos()) used here) may be expensive, several alternatives exist that do not use these functions.

In the code presented here we have implemented the methods of Marsaglia (random_sphere1()) and Cook (random_sphere2()). Both are rejection methods: they discard some random numbers when they would lead to invalid vectors. This is wasteful so the question is: are these methods really more efficient on modern hardware where trigonometric functions are implemented as cpu operations?

## Some timings

The timings presented below were measured on a 64-bit Amd 6-core cpu with the shader provided below. They might be completely different for other CPUs and probably even more so once OSL shaders will be able to run on a GPU.

nrandom_sphererandom_sphere1 random_sphere2
100 3.6 3.4 7.5
500 10.4 10.1 -
First thing to note is that the timings for 100 and 500 vectors do not scale proportionally because some of the dots we draw with our shader overlap, effectively reducing the number of vectors we have to generate for each shading sample. The other thing is that random_sphere2 is much slower than the other implementations, probably because we generate more random numbers and reject a lot more combinations.

As for the difference between the other two methods: the difference is probably significant but too small to make a real difference on my CPU. I'll probably check again when I get another CPU or OSL shaders will run on a GPU, but for now I stick with the most straightforward method.

## Code and node setup

// generate random unit vectors randomly distributed over a sphere// straight forward methodvector random_sphere(point p, int n){  float t = M_2PI*noise("cell",p,n*2+0);  float u = 2*noise("cell",p,n*2+1)-1;  float s,c,a;  sincos(t,s,c);  a = sqrt(1-u*u);  float x = a*c;  float y = a*s;  float z = u;  return vector(x,y,z);  }// marsaglia's methodvector random_sphere1(point p, int m){  vector v = 0;  float repeat = 0;  int n = m + 1;  while(1){    repeat++;    float r0 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*2+0)-1;    float r1 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*2+1)-1;    float r02 = r0*r0;    float r12 = r1*r1;    float sr2 = r02 + r12;    if( sr2 < 1 ){      float x = 2*r0*sqrt(1-r02-r12);      float y = 2*r1*sqrt(1-r02-r12);      float z = 1-2*sr2;   v = vector(x,y,z);   break;    }  }  return v;}// cook's methodvector random_sphere2(point p, int m){  vector v = 0;  float repeat = 0;  int n = m + 1;  while(1){    repeat++;    float r0 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*4+0)-1;    float r1 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*4+1)-1;    float r2 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*4+2)-1;    float r3 = 2*noise("cell",p,repeat*n*4+3)-1;    float r02 = r0*r0;    float r12 = r1*r1;    float r22 = r2*r2;    float r32 = r3*r3;    float sr2 = r02 + r12 + r22 + r32; if( sr2 < 1 ){      float x = 2*(r1*r3 + r0*r2)/sr2;      float y = 2*(r2*r3 - r0*r1)/sr2;      float z = (r02 + r32 - r12 - r22)/sr2;      v = vector(x,y,z);   break;    }  }  return v;}shader sphere_test(  vector p = P,  int n = 100,  float R = 0.03,  int method = 0,    output float Fac = 0){  for(int i=0; i < n; i++){    vector v = 0; if( method == 0 ){   v= random_sphere(point(0,0,0),i); }else if( method == 1){   v= random_sphere1(point(0,0,0),i); }else{   v= random_sphere2(point(0,0,0),i); }    if( distance(point(0,0,0),1000*v,p ) < R ){      Fac = 1;      break;    }  }}

The way we generate random numbers might seem strange but not only do we want to be able to generate any number of vectors for a given cell but in the rejection methods we also want to be able to generate replacements that are guaranteed to be different, hence the multiplication by the number of times we have to repeat.

The image shows the node setup used to verify the shader and time the different implementtations

### An OSL wood knot shader

Back in january I presented a wood shader that produces decent results but one of things that was missing was a way to add realistic knots to planks. In this article a present a shader that is meant as a first step in producing knots. It is not a finished shader yet, but it is fully functional as a texture warping tool and in a future article I might detail how to combine it with a wood shader and a shader to texture the inside of the knot properly. Because that will take some time so I thought it better to present it as a WIP as I am currently unable to spend more than a few minutes behind my desk (and there's no Blender for Android alas).

## Warping space

The idea is quite simple and might be adaptable to more than just producing knots: we distribute points randomly and warp the position coordinates around these points. These warped coordinates are then used as the basis for a texture. In the example image we use the warped coordinates as the input to a bands texture:

As you can see the bands of the texture seem to flow around the knots as if they were repelled by them and in fact that is pretty much how the algorithm works.

## Implementation

int bend(vector p, vector k, float r, float a, float m, output vector B){  vector D = k - p;  float L = length(D);  if( L < r ){    float c = L/r; float d = m * pow( 1 - c , a); if( d < L ){  B = d * normalize(D);  return 1; }else{     B = D;  return 2; }  }  return 0;}shader knot(  vector Pos = P,  float Scale = 5,  float R = 0.8,  float Falloff = 1,  float Strength = 0.9,  float Knots=0.5,  output vector Vec = P,  output float Fac = 0){  vector p = Scale * Pos;  vector sdp = 0;  float TR = ceil(R);  for(float dx=-TR; dx <= TR; dx++){    for(float dy=-TR; dy <= TR; dy++){      for(float dz=-TR; dz <= TR; dz++){        vector ip = floor(p)+vector(dx,dy,dz);        for(int ik=0; ik < (int)Knots; ik++){          vector k = noise("cell",ip,ik);          vector dp= 0;    int ret = bend(p,ip+k,R,Falloff,Strength,dp);          if(ret != 0){            Fac=max(Fac,ret==2);            sdp+=dp;          }        }        if( noise("cell",ip,-1) < mod(Knots,1.0) ){          vector k = noise("cell",ip,-2);          vector dp= 0;    int ret = bend(p,ip+k,R,Falloff,Strength,dp);          if(ret != 0){            Fac=max(Fac,ret==2);            sdp+=dp;          }        }      }    }  }  if( Fac < 1 ){ Vec = p + sdp;  }else{    Vec = sdp;  }}
The magic is in the bend() function. It calculates the difference vector from the point being shaded to the center of the repulsion. If the distance is short enough, a translation vector is returned that is a distance dependent fraction of the difference vector. It takes some thinking to see that in order to create the illusion of repulsion we actually have to replace the point being shaded towards the center of repulsion: remember that at the point we are shading we want to see the lines closer to the center.

When we calculate the translation towards the center and we are close enough to it, we might overshoot the center point. In which case we return a value of 2, signalling we are inside the knot and return not the translated shading point but the vector pointing to the center (which might be useful to render some concentric pattern in the knot).

The shader itself is nothing more than checking if we might be in range of one of the randomly distributed points and calling the bend() function to do the actual work. We do allow for a fractional number of knots per unit cell, in which case the fraction acts as the probability that a knot might occur.

## Room for improvement

Obviously knots are not spherical marbles embedded randomly in some wood but as the remnants of branches they are more reminiscent of stubby cylinders which might be better modeled by determining the distance to a randomly oriented line segment instead, something I intend to implement in the near future.

Another area that needs attention is to way the inside of the knot appears. In the example setup we produced some concentric circles but a real knot is a bit more complex than that.

### OSL debugging tips

The other day I was debugging a shader that didn't produce the results I expected, in fact it didn't produce any output at all. In its basic form it resembled the following shader:

shader S(  vector position = P,  output color Color = 0){  ... many calculations ...  if( ... some condition ...){ Color = 1; }}

When I hooked this shader up in some node setup, I'd expected it to produce a pattern but all I got was a uniform black. Obviously the condition was never true and Color was never assigned a value of 1. So I had to determine what the values of some intermediate values were to get an idea why the if statement didn't fire.

So I inserted a printf() call:

shader S(  vector position = P,  output color Color = 0){  ... many calculations ...  printf("%.2f\n",position);  if( ... some condition ...){ Color = 1; }}

I clicked the recompile button, looked in the console and ... nothing was printed! To be 100% sure that the shader was evaluated I changed it to:

shader S(  vector position = P,  output color Color = 0){  ... many calculations ...  printf("%.2f\n",position);  if( ... some condition ...){ Color = 1; }  Color = 0.5;}

Now the node setup produced the expected shade of gray, so it was hooked up correctly and was indeed being executed but more surprisingly, the console showed the printf output.

This baffled me: if I commented out the final assignment to Color, the printf() wasn't executed. I thought I found a bug in OSL and reported it. But was it?

## Constant folding

It turned out that this is intended behavior. The OSL compiler is a clever piece of software and does its best to reduce unnecessary calculations. One of the tricks it employs is called constant folding, a method in common use in many compilers. Basically it tries to calculate at compile time anything that can be compiled, for example:

twopi = 2 * 3.14;fourpi = 2 * twopi;

becomes after compilation:

twopi = 6.28;fourpi = 12.56;

This keeps your code readable but reduces actual calculation at runtime. And this can lead to significant speedups when you are shading milions of samples.

OSL has a lot more of these tricks up its sleeve and can reduce quite complex expressions, even removing branches from if/else statements. But it goes a step further still. If the compiler detects that none of the output values is changed from its default by a shader, this shader is not executed at all.

For my example shader this implies that because the condition in the if statement is apparently based on things that can be calculated at compile time and never true, the if statement is optimized away. The result of this is that no output value will ever be changed by this shader and so the whole shader is optimized away, even if we put printf(), warning() or error() calls in this shader, because statements that produce side effects only and do not contribute to the output of the shader are not by themselves considered enough to keep an if/else branch or even a shader from being optimized away.

## Debugging OSL code

Now if we want to debug some code we might have a problem because simply inserting a printf() call is no guarantee that the information we are interested in will be printed. Also, assigning a value to an output socket might not be enough:

shader S(  vector position=P,  output color Color=0){  ...  printf(.....);  Color = 1;  Color = position[0];}

Neither of the last two statements will ensure that the printf() call is executed. The first one us an assigment of a constant and can be calculated at compile time. The last one only depends on the input and can be 'hardwired', that is, there is no need to execute the shader; the compiler can simply connect input and output.

So if we want to make sure the printf() executes, we need an assignment to Color that cannot be calculated at compile time, for example one of:

Color = position[0]>0;
Color = rand();

Another option is to create an extra output socket just for debugging and assign the variable that you are interested in to this socket. If you connect it to a diffuse shader there is a lot you can tell based on the color, but of course not all variables are suitable for this approach (strings to name one).

## New debugging options

From release r57660 (download it from the daily builds, I tested the 64bit windows version) you can disable OSL optimizations by assigning a value to the OSL_OPTIONS environment variable. If you use Windows this can be done like this:

• open a command prompt
• set the variable (don't use quotes)
set OSL_OPTIONS=optimize=0
• run Blender from the command line
C:\path\to\blender.exe
On unix-like systems you start from an xterm or equivalent and type export OSL_OPTIONS="optimize=0"
path/to/blender